The period from 1918 to 1948 was one of lost peace, of unrest, instability, economical crisis,
crimes, suffering, war and eventually the cold war and peace.
With the armistice of 11 November, 1918 quiet descends on Europe for the first time in over four years.
Among the casualties the First World War is liberal idealism and confidence in the achievements of science and technical advance to further the progress of man. Into the void will come a new and darker idealism forged in the fires of war and destruction. With the unhappy peace treaty of Versailles, come the arbitrary drawing of lines on a map, the sundering of empires and peoples, the creation of convenient catch-all nations, the treachery of politics. The flowering of Fascism in Italy emboldens those who have similar designs in other countries. Political unrest and instability quickly devolve into the inflation of 1923 and after a brief period of recovery, when the nations seemed to have found their footing, to the Great Depression of 1929.
As the world struggles into the 1930's the democracies of the west will suffer a crises of
confidence, and the fledgling Weimar Republic of Germany will be guided onto the rocks of totalitarianism by an
unhappy concurrence of men and events. The League of Nations, the only real achievement of the victors of the
Great War is never properly empowered by it's member nations who do not wish to surrender any bit of sovereignty
in the interest of collective security and will sputter out of existence. The stage is set for the emergence of
Hitler, the evil of Stalinism and the brutal militarism of the Japanese Army and it's savaging of China. The
democratic West, under seige by doubt, division and economic hardship will prove to be not equal to the
demands of peace and as the thirties come to a close, Europe and the world are again plunged into war.
The violence of total war will be hurled onto soldier and civilian alike. Nearly all of Europe and half of China
and the vast Pacific regions will feel the terrors of war before the final victory of the Allied Nations.
When the dust settled in 45, some 60 million people had died in the war and in the worst crime that ever
happened, the holocaust.
This time, the mistakes of Versailles will not be repeated after the war as the Marshall Plan for the
reconstruction of the devastated nations is implemented. Still it is an uneasy peace, beset with fears of
tyranny and nuclear anihilation that blankets Europe, America and Asia as the frightening realites of the Cold
War between the West and the Soviet Union take hold. Eventually the West will demonstrate that it has well
learned the folly of appeasement win the face of aggression. When Soviets try to bully Berlin into their occupation
zone, they are defeated by the Berlin Airlift. With this, Western Germany is reassured of it's future and it's
place with the Western democracies, the period of Soviet expansionism shifts from Europe to other places,
setting the stage for the Cold War.
| 1917 |
October |
With financial help from Imperial Germany the bolshevik party under Lenin manages to
attain power in Russia.
|
| 1918 |
March 3 |
In the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk the war with Russia is ended. Russia renounces any
authority in Poland and the Baltic states and acknowledges the independence of Ukraine
and Finland. The Central powers do not demand reparations.
|
|
November 11 |
The "Great War" is ended by an armistice between Germany and the Allied Powers,
signed in Compiegne. The terms of the peace treaty are to be made later.
Until the actual peace treaty is signed, the British blockade of Germany continues.
|
| 1919 |
January 18 |
Peace conference opens in Versailles. The main points are negotiated
between David Lloyd George (Great Britain), Georges Clemenceau (France)
and Woodrow Wilson (USA).
|
|
April 29 |
The constitution of the League of Nations is accepted at the Parisienne
peace conference and will be included into the peace treaties as Article 1-26.
|
|
June 28 |
The Treaty of Versailles is signed by Germany. Shortly later Austria, Hungary, Turkey and
Bulgaria sign their own treaties. They include that Germany and the Central powers
take all responsibility for the war and demand full reperations especially from
Germany. The amount of the reparations remains open.
|
| 1920 |
November 15 |
First meeting of the full assembly of the Leage of Nations in Geneva.
The US does not enter the League.
|
| 1921 |
January 24-29 |
Conference in Paris on reparations proceeds without participation of Germany.
They decide that Germany has to pay 269 billion Goldmarks and, for 42 years,12% of
the value of German exports (another some 1-2 Billions a year).
This excluded any reparations that Russia might demand. German war expenses from
1914-18 amount to some 150 Billions. This money was collected mainly via war bonds
and has to be repaid by the state to the population.
|
|
March 8 |
After Germany tries to negotiate the sum without success, parts of the Ruhr area
are occupied by France.
|
|
April 27 |
The German reparations are newly fixed to 132 Billion Goldmarks, payable in 37 years.
|
|
May 1 |
Germany agrees to the conditions. The occupation of the Ruhr area continues.
|
|
August 24/25 |
The US, not having signed the treaty of Versailles,
makes its own peace treaty with Germany and Austria.
|
|
November 12 -
Febr. 6 |
Washington Conference on arms reduction successfully reduces the size of the
US, British, Japanese, French and Italian fleets.
The participants agree on a tonnage-ration of 5:5:3:1,75:1,75 and not to build
any new capital ships. The "Open door policy" for China is concluded.
|
| 1922 |
April 16 |
In the German-Soviet treaty of Rapallo both sides take up diplomatic relations
and agree that any open questions resulting from the war are settled. With this
the Sovietunion renounces any claims due to the Versailles-Treaty (article 116).
This alienates France, which had planned to shift the huge Russian pre-war debts to
France (which the Sovietunion simply did not acknowledge) upon Germany.
|
|
October 28 |
The March on Rome - In Italy the nationalist movement under Mussolini, disappointed with
the results of the war for Italy, takes power. Fascism and Antifascism
start to become competing ideologies.
|
| 1923 |
January 9-11 |
Over the vote of Great Britain the reparation comission decides that Germany has
neglected its coal delivery. France and Belgium decide to send some engineers to the
Ruhr area to speed up the German deliveries. Five divisions with heavy weapons are
sent with them for protection, the Occupation of the Rhineland. The US withdraws their troops from the still occupied
areas of Germany.
|
|
January 13 |
German cancellor Cuno declares "passive resistance". Strikes, riots and bloody
clashes of the occupation troops with workers are common. The costs for this are
mainly financed by printing bills in Germany.
|
|
September 26 |
New cancellor Gustav Streseman ends the passive resistance. The German Reich has
reached it's economic and financial breaking point.
|
|
October 21 |
With French support, separatists try to declare an independent "Rhine Republic"
in Aachen. The plan fails due to resistance by the population and the British disapproval.
|
|
October 24 |
With French support, separatists try to declare an independet "Autonomous Pfalz"
in Speyer. With strong support from the French military, they manage to hold on for
some time. Eventually the plan fails due to resistance of the population and the British
disapproval. Bavaria declared martial law to counter this autonomy movement. President
Ebert declared martial law in Germany to keep control of Bavaria.
|
|
Oktober |
In Saxony and Thuringia the coalition-governments of KPD and SPD protests against
the prohibition of communist and socialist press. The Reichwehr
forces these governments to resign.
Although ordered to do so, the Bavarian government refuses to take any
steps against a NSDAP-newspaper. The Bavarian government takes direct
control over the local parts of the Reichswehr.
Bloody street riots in Hamburg between communists and the police
The inflation reaches an all time high. One US-Dollar costs 40 Billion Mark.
On the pro-side to the government all the private war bonds (which are
rated by Reichsmark, not Goldmark like the reparations) can be paid back
without problems. All savings on banks (or in war bonds) are lost, leading
to widespread poverty.
|
|
November 9 |
The Beerhall Putch of Hitler. Despite the fact that Ludendorf takes part, police and
Reichswehr do not support the putch but activley suppress it. The executive power is
given by president Ebert to General von Seeckt. Germany becomes de jure a military
government, but von Seeckt does not misuse his power.
Hitler is arrested and sentenced to fortress prison (which means without loss
of honour). He is imprisoned at Landsberg where he writes "Mein Kampf".
Six days after the putch a reform of the German currency takes place and the
Rentenmark is introduced. This effectively ends the inflation.
|
| 1924 |
April 9 |
The Dawes Plan is put forward to stabilize the economic situation in Europe,
to enable the Germans to pay their reparations and the Allies to pay their
debts to the US. It sets an upper limit for payment of reparations and limits
the time to 37 years. The Motto is "Business, not politics".
|
|
July 16-
August 16 |
The Dawesplan is generally accepted on the London conference.
|
|
October 5-16 |
The Locarno Conference solves many open questions and is a first important
step to a system of collective security in Europe. Nationalists on all sides severly
criticize the treaty.
|
| 1926 |
September 8 |
Germany enters the League of Nations. The vote is unanimous.
|
|
December 10 |
Nobel Peace Prize is shared by Gustav Stresemann of Germany and Aristide Briand of
France. The next years prize is also shared by a German-French pair (L.Quidde and
F. Buisson).
|
| 1928 |
August 27 |
The Kellogg-Briand Pact is signed by 15 Nations, 39 more until the end of 29. It
bans war as a tool to solve international conflicts.
|
| 1929 |
February 9 |
Litinow-protocol. A non-aggression pact between the Soviet-Union, Rumania, Poland
Lithuania and Estonia.
|
|
August 6-31 |
First Haague conference. The proposed Young Plan further reduces the reparations
of Germany. The end of the occupation of the Rhineland by the allies is scheduled
for mid 1930.
|
|
September 5 |
Aristide Briand of France proposes a plan for the United States of Europe.
|
|
October 25 |
Black Friday on the stock exchance of New York starts the
world economic crisis.
|
| 1930 |
January 3-20 |
Second Hague Conference. The Young Plan is signed.
|
| 1931 |
September 18 |
Japan occupies Mukden and other places in Manchuko. War between Japan and China begins.
|
|
September 21 |
The bank of England drops the gold standard.
|
|
December 10 |
The League sends a commission to investigate the Japanese/Chinese conflict.
|
| 1932 |
February 18 |
Japan creates the "independent" state of Mandchuko (under Japanese protection).
|
|
June 16 - July 9 |
At the Conference in Lausanne reparations are fixed on a final sum of 3 billion
Goldmarks. This gives a total of paid reparations of 53 Billion Goldmarks.
|
|
September 4 |
Lytton Report on the conflict between China and Japan accuses Japan of being
the aggressor. Japanese special interests are acknowledged and it proposes
to make Manchuko a autonomous part of China under Japanese control.
|
|
December 11 |
On a conference in Lausanne the major powers acknowledge
Germanys equal rights in (re)armament.
|
| 1933 |
January 30 |
Adolf Hitler becomes Chancellor of the German Reich.
|
|
February 2 -
October 14 |
Second internalional conference on disarmament. ends without results.
It tries to limit the army size of the major powers, while
Germany is entitled to 200.000 man. Germany leaves the conference
because a new plan postpones the limitations for four years.
In reference to the Lausanne conference Germany starts a
limited rearmament. The conference ends without any results.
|
|
March 25 |
Japan leaves the League of Nation as a reaction on the
Lytton-report (resolution from Febr. 25). The lack of consequences
demonstrates the weakness of the League against a determined aggressor.
|
|
July 15 |
A pact between France, Germany, Great Britain and Italy is signed.
|
|
October 14 |
Germany leaves the Leage of Nations
|
| 1934 |
January 24 |
Pact of non-aggression and friendship between Germany and Poland.
|
|
Arpil 22 |
French note to Great-Britain about Germanys violation of
the Versailles treaty due to its raised arms etat. In
the consequence France looks for allies in the east, especially
the Soviet-Union.
|
|
September 18 |
The Soviet-Union enters the League of Nations.
|
| 1935 |
March 7 |
Reestablishment of the French-Belgian military pact.
|
|
March 16 |
Germany denounces any arms restrictions of the Versailles treaty and
introduces the enlistment.
|
|
April 17 |
The League of Nations condemns the German violation of the Versailles
treaty. No action is taken.
|
|
May 2 |
French-Soviet pact, effective for five years, for mutual help in the case of
an attack by an European nation.
|
|
May 16 |
Soviet-Czechoslovakian pact, valid only if France supports both parties.
|
|
June 18 |
German-British Fleet agreement. The German fleet is set to 35%
of the British. This supports the revision of the Versailles treaty
and leads to some discomfort between France and Great Britain.
|
|
October 3 |
Italy invades Abessinia.
|
|
September 15 |
The Nuremberg racial laws ("The law to protect German Blood and German Honour")
are promulgated.
|
|
October 11 |
The League of Nations condemns Italys aggression and imposes an embargo
on weapons, credit and raw materials. This remains ineffective due to
a very lenient position of France and Great Britain and open support by
Germany.
|
| 1936 |
March 7 |
German troops enter the Rhineland. The western democracies take no action,
the League protests the violation of the Versailles treaty.
|
|
Jule 4 |
With the occupation of Abessinia complete, the League ends its sanctions against Italy.
|
|
Jule 18 |
The Spanish Civil War starts. With German and Italian support, General Franco
manages to put up a nationalist front. The Republican government (Peoples Front)
is strongly supported and later controlled by the Soviet Union.
|
|
October 25 |
German-Italian treaty between Rome and Berlin (the Axis).
|
|
November 25 |
Anticomintern Pact between Germany and Japan. Italy enters a year later.
|
| 1937 |
July 7 |
The Japanese Chinese war is renewed.
|
|
October 5 |
Roosevelt renounces the neutrality policy towards Japan.
|
|
December 11 |
Italy leaves the League of Nations.
|
| 1938 |
March 12 |
German troops enter Austria which is annexed one day later.
|
|
September 29 |
Munich Conference. Hitler assures the world that this is his last territorial
demand. British Prime Minister Chamberlain and French Premier Daladier cede Czech
territories to Germany, Poland and Hungary.
|
|
August 12 |
Armistice declared between Japan and the Soviet Union after outbreak of border fighting.
|
|
November 9 |
"Reichskristallnacht" in Germany. In an organized progrom, most Synagogues are
ravaged and many jews are killed.
|
| 1939 |
March 14 |
Slovakia and Carpatho-Ukraine declare independency from Czechoslovakia (strongly
encouraged by the Axis-countries). A day
later, German troops occupy the rest of the state.
|
|
March 15 |
United States begins serious preparations for war.
|
|
April 7 |
As a compensation for the German expansion in Czechoslavakia, Italy occupies Albania.
|
|
April 18 |
The Soviet Union offers a Soviet-British-French alliance which would guarantee the
integrity of Poland. The consulations are unproductive.
|
|
May 11 |
Japanese attack on disputed border areas is renewed between Japanese and Soviets.
Japanese are eventually heavily defeated.
|
|
August 23 |
German-Russian non-agression pact. A secret protocol divides Europe into spheres
of influence.
|
|
August 25 |
A full British-Polish military alliance is formed. Great Britain guarantees Polands
security.
|
|
September 1 |
World War Two begins with the German attack on Poland.
|
|
September 3 |
France, Great Britain and the Commonwealth countries declare war upon Germany.
|
|
September 15 |
Soviets and Japanese sign another armistice on Manchurian border.
This frees the Soviets to move troops to the west.
|
|
September 17 |
Soviet troops enter Poland and advance to the demarcation-line.
|
|
September 25 |
Poland is dismembered. Large parts of it are incorporated into Germany
or the Soviet Union. The remainder on the German side with the core of
the old Polish lands become the "Generalgouvernement".
From the start, the German government systematically tries to eliminate the polish
intelligentsia and educated classes.
|
|
November 8 |
An assassination attempt of Elser on Hitler fails. One of the consequences is
that another attempt planned by the recistance movement has to be cancelled.
|
|
November 30 |
The Soviet-Finnish winterwar starts. Eventually Finlands forces are worn down
and Finland capitulates.
|
| 1940 |
April 9 |
With operation "Weserübung" Germany occupies Denmark and Norway.
|
|
May 10 |
After several months of "Drôle de Guerre" (Phoney war, Sitzkrieg) the
Germans finally attack in the west. After six weeks of heavy fighting,
the Netherlands and Belgium are occupied, France capitulates after Paris
falls and the British withdraw from the continent.
|
|
June 10 |
Mussolini enters the war against France.
|
|
June 22 |
The armistice between Germany and France is signed in the Compiègne wagon-lit.
A French government of the unoccupied territories is formed in Vichy with General Pétain
as head of state.
|
|
October 28 |
Italy attacks Greece.
|
|
December 9 |
Wavell's attack in Northern Africa proceeds from Egypt into Lybia.
|
|
December 18 |
Hitler signs order 21, Barbarossa. The planning has to be completed
by May 15th.
|
| 1941 |
April 6-28 |
Germany occupies Yugoslavia and Greece.
|
|
May 20 |
A German air landing manages to capture Crete after twelve days of severe fighting.
|
|
June 8 |
British and Free French troops invade Syria. Vichy troops stoutly resist.
|
|
June 22 |
Operation Barbarossa commences. Germany attacks the Soviet Union.
3 million German soldiers attack the Soviet army of 5.7 million, 2.5 of
them in the west. In the coming weeks, Stalin mobilizes some 10 million
reservists. On the 29th the Central Commitee declares this the "Great Fatherland War".
|
|
October 2 |
The operation "Taifun" to take Moscow commences. It peters out due to stiffened
resistance and especially bad weather.
|
|
December 5 |
The Soviet counter offensive hits the unsuspecting German army.
|
|
December 7 |
Japanese carrier planes attack the US fleet in Pearl Harbor.
In a series of campaigns they manage to occupy Malaya, the Phillipines,
Singapoore, Java and Borneo.
|
|
December 11 |
Hitler declares war upon the United States.
|
| 1942 |
January 1 |
The pact of the "United Nations" is signed in Washington by 26 nations.
They commit themselve to not agree to any seperate peace with Germany or Japan.
|
|
January 20 |
During the Wannsee Conference the procedures
of the elimination of the European Jews are discussed.
Shortly after this conference, the elimination camps of
Chelmno, Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka, Majdanek and
Auschwitz-Birkenau began their work.
|
|
March 21 |
Hitler decided to mass-recruit foreign workers into service for Germany.
Most of the finally 7.5 million workers are forced into service.
|
|
March 28/29 |
First carpet bombing of a German city (Lübeck) by the British
Bomber-Command under General Sir Arthur Harris.
|
|
May 4-8 |
The air-sea battle of the Coral Sea comes out as an tactical victory
but strategical defeat for Japan.
|
|
May 26 |
A German/Italian offensive in Northern Africa manages to proceed from El-Gazala to
Bir Hacheim, later to El-Alamain.
|
|
June 3-7 |
In the Sea-Air battle at Midway the Japanese loose four of their best aircraft carriers
against one of the US. This shifts the naval superiority from Japan to the US for the
remainder of the war.
|
|
August 7 |
US-troops land on Guadalcanal. In a four month battle that involves sea-, air- and
land battles they hold and later occupy the islands.
|
|
October 23 |
A well prepared offensive of the British 8th army
(General Montgomery) forces the
German Africa Corps
(General Rommel)
to retreat with great losses.
|
|
November 7/8 |
US/British forces land in Marocco and Algieria. After some fighting the
French Vichy Forces join the Free French.
|
|
November 11 |
The remaining part of France is occupied by German and Italian forces.
|
|
November 19 |
The Soviet offensive northwest of Stalingrad breaks through the
German lines and traps the 6th German army (250.000 men) in the city. Hitler
forbids them to break out.
|
| 1943 |
February 2 |
The last resistance in Stalingrad ends. From 250.000 man who where trapped in
Stalingrad only some 90000 survived (24000 left via air before). 6000 of these would
live through their captivity to return.
|
|
April 19 -
May 19 |
Uprising in the Warzaw Ghetto. The SS needs a month of fighting to squash
the revolt. 56000 casualties on the Jewish side are counted.
|
|
May 8 |
Casablance-Conference between Roosevelt and Churchill. The "unconditional
surrender" becomes the goal of the war.
|
|
May 13 |
The German army in Africa capitulates in Tunis. 130000 German and 120000 Italian soldiers
are captured.
|
|
May 23 |
After severe losses (in May, 43 submarines were lost) Dönitz ends the battle
for the North Atlantic.
|
|
July 5 |
Operation "Zitadelle" is the last great German offensive in the East. Badly
planned, it run into severe Russian defenses and gained no ground. On the
17th of July a Russian counteroffensive on the whole front quickly gained ground.
|
|
July 10 |
British and US troops land on Sicily.
|
|
September 9 |
British and US troops land at Salerno.
|
|
November 1 |
US Marines land on Bougainville. The island is only secured in 1945 by
Australian troops.
|
|
November 20 |
US Marines attack Tarawa. The island is taken after four days of heavy fighting.
There are no Japanese survivors.
|
|
November 28 -
December 1 |
The Teheran Conference between Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin already dwells on the
post-war order of Europe.
|
|
December 26 |
US troops land on New Britain.
|
| 1944 |
March 7 |
Japanese try to strike into India with an advance to Kohima and Imphal.
They are stopped by British and Indian forces in a series of battles
that rage until the end of May.
|
|
June 6 |
Allied troops land in Normandy.
|
|
June 15 |
US forces land on Saipan and take it in campaign of some three weeks. Tinian and Guam
are secured by 1st of August. In an attempt to defend these islands, the
Japanese navy rushes to help and gets almost wiped out in the battle of
the Philippine Sea (19th of June).
|
|
June 22 |
The Soviet operation "Bagration" manages to cut off the German army group center.
28 divisions with some 350000 German soldiers are destroyed, killed or captured.
|
|
July 20 |
The assassination attempt on Hitler by Oberst
Claus Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg fails.
He and several conspirators are executed. In the end, some 5000 people are killed
for their connection to the plot.
|
|
July 31 |
US breakthrough at Avranches leads to the collapse of the German defense in France.
|
|
August 25 |
The Free French troops under De Gaulle and US troops liberate Paris.
|
|
October 20 |
US troops land at Leyte, on the Philippines. In a prolonged series of Sea-, Air- and
landbattles Japan looses its hold on the Philippines, though large groups hold
out until the end of the war. The 25th of October saw the defeat of the last
Japanese naval fleet. Manila was secured on the 3rd of March 45.
This campaign saw the first appearance of Kamikaze units.
|
|
December 16 |
The Ardenne offensive marks the last try of the Germans to regain
the offensive. It is quickly squashed by Allied airpower.
|
| 1945 |
January 12 |
In a large offensive against the German Eastfront (void of supplies due
to the Ardenne-offensive) the Soviets manage to advance into Germany.
|
|
February 4-11 |
At the Jalta-Conference, Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill confer about
the new world order. The establishing of the United Nations is agreed upon.
|
|
February 19 |
US Marines attack Iwo Jima. The island is secured after a month of
heavy fighting.
|
|
April 1 |
US troops land on Okinawa. The battle was over on the 21st of June,
with some 107000 Japanese casualties. The US troops lost almost
13000 killed and had 36000 wounded.
|
|
April 13 |
The Red Army conquers Vienna.
|
|
April 16 |
The Red Army starts its final attack on Berlin.
|
|
April 25 |
US and Soviet troops meet at Torgau.
|
|
April 26 |
The founding conference of the United Nations commences in San Francisco. It is
signed on the 26th of June by representants of 51 nations.
|
|
April 30 |
Hitler commits suicide. Three days later the last defenders of Berlin capitulate.
|
|
May 8 |
Unconditional surrender of the remaining German forces to the Allies - VE-Day.
|
|
July 16 |
Trinity. The first atomic bomb is successfully tested in New Mexico.
|
|
July 17-
August 2 |
The Potsdam Conference with Truman, Churchill (Attlee since the 29th) and
Stalin decides the details of the post war order and cements the division of
Europe into two spheres of influence.
|
|
August 6 |
The first A-bomb explodes over Hiroshima. 80% of the town is destroyed, 90000 people
die immediately, 400000 are wounded (with longterm-effects).
|
|
August 8 |
The Soviet Union declares war upon Japan and quickly advances into Manchuko, Korea and
the Kuriles.
|
|
August 9 |
The second A-bomb explodes over Nagasaki. 40000 people die immediately, 60000 are wounded.
|
|
August 10 |
Japanese Emperor Hirohito sends a capitulation offer to the Allied Command.
|
|
August 10 |
VJ Day. The war ends with the unconditional surrender of Japan.
|
| 1946 |
January 10 |
First meeting of the full assembly of the United Nations in London.
|
| 1947 |
February 13 |
The UN establishes a commission for conventional disarmament.
|
|
March 12 |
The Truman Doctrine promises to help
"free peoples whose liberties are endangered".
|
| 1948 |
April 26 |
The Soviet Union declared the Berlin Blockade. The western Allies
build up the Air Lift to supply Berlin.
|
| 1949 |
April 4 |
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization NATO is established.
|
